2.+Learning+Environment+and+Motivation

**2.1 Introduction**
As described in the Introduction to Motivation page of this wiki, the learning environment is one of the five key factors that affects learner motivation. Within our teaching environments, student concentration, creativity, effort, and participation are all influenced by how they feel about their surroundings (Ginsberg & Wlodkowski, 2009). This connection between the learning environment and motivation relates to human nature. Being part of a connected and respected environment is a fundamental need shared by all learners. This page explains how the desire for inclusion is related to the motivation to learn.

**2.2 Three Domains of Learning**
There are three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. The cognitive domain focuses on the thought processes occurring in the brain, the affective domain focuses on emotion and values, and the psychomotor domain emphasizes learning through physical movement (Hovey, 2008). Within each domain, there are different levels that students progress through. The article //Teaching Within the Three Domains of Learning //by Kim Hovey provides an explanation of each level in each of the three learning domains.

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Post-secondary education, and most other levels of education, tend to emphasize the acquisition of knowledge and the process of logical thinking. Most instructors devote their efforts towards learning objectives and class activities that help students achieve cognitive development. The focus on the cognitive domain has in part been due to the influence of Bloom's taxonomy of the cognitive domain, originally published in 1956 and shown in the figure below:

http://educationaljargonschs.wikispaces.com/Bloom's+Taxonomy+(revised)

More recently, education researchers have embraced the idea of integrating cognition with the other two domains of learning, affective and psychomotor, so that students can learn holistically (Barkley, 2010). This idea has been backed up with neuroscience findings which have determined that emotion, cognition, and the physical body cannot be separated in the brain and throughout the nervous system (Ratey, 2002). Therefore, instructors must move beyond the cognitive domain in their classes to broaden student learning.

//Emotions are "an empowering source of information about how to influence motivational patterns."// - M.E. Ford

The learning environment is closely connected to the affective domain. How students feel about their learning, about their course material, about their instructors, about their fellow students, and about their classroom environment will all affect how they learn and engage (Barkley, 2010). In the classroom, emotions are not created by the environment or the student, but rather by student-environment interactions that are vulnerable to change over time (Meyer & Turner, 2006). A positive learning climate has been shown to stimulate the frontal lobes of the brain (Barkley, 2010), indicating a close connection between emotion and cognition. Also, students are more likely to remember content when they have made an emotional investment into the course. Therefore, the learning environment greatly influences how students feel, which in turn will influence their motivation to learn. Useful tips to create and maintain a positive learning climate may be found on the Characteristics of a Supportive Learning Environment and Tips to Improve Learning Environment pages of this wiki.

The following video illustrates how the cognitive and affective domains overlap, and presents the concept of a new social domain:

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**2.3 Social Theories of Motivation**
//"A viable theory of motivation for educational psychology must be able to incorporate emotions."// - S. Graham Within the numerous theories of motivation that have been developed in the past 60 years, there are several motivational theories that are associated with the social and emotional aspects of human beings. Listed below are some of the more common social motivational theories that relate to the classroom environment: [] With these and other motivational theories highlighting the importance of social needs in motivation, instructors must recognize the influential role of the learning environment and ensure that the learning environment meets these social needs.
 * Maslow's **Hierarchy of Needs**, as described on the Introduction to Motivation page of this wiki, indicates that lower level human needs must be satisfied before people even recognize higher level needs that relate to learning (Brophy, 2004). Some of these lower level needs are directly affected by the classroom environment, including physical and emotional safety, belonging and acceptance, friendship, respect, and independence. If the learning environment meets these needs, learners will likely reach the level of self-actualization, which is where humans realize their full potential and their actions reflect a desire to fulfill this potential.
 * Alderfer's **ERG Theory**, also described on the Introduction to Motivation page of this wiki, states that humans have 3 basic needs that can be satisfied in any order: existence, relatedness, and growth (Alderfer, 1969). The second need, relatedness, is closely tied to the classroom environment. The need for relatedness refers to the need to interact with other people, receive recognition from others, feel secure around others, and establish and maintain relationships with peers.
 * McClelland's **Theory of Needs**, also described on the Introduction to Motivation page of this wiki, has determined that there are 3 needs influencing motivation: achievement, affiliation, and power (McClelland, 1975). The second need, affiliation, can be satisfied by a positive learning climate where people feel that they are an important part of the class. The need for affiliation is based on friendly relationships, interaction with others, and social acceptance. All people have some degree of need for affiliation, but some people are more affiliation-driven than others.
 * Adams's **Equity Theory** states that people are more likely to be motivated when they feel fairly treated, and vice versa (Adams, 1963). According to this theory, people assess the ratio of their inputs and outputs and compare this ratio with others. Students will experience dissonance if they find that their outputs do not reflect their inputs, as compared to other students. For example, if they spend 3 weeks working on a project and receive the same grade as a student who did the project the night before, this is dissatisfying and negatively affects motivation. Instructors must strive to reduce inequity in the classroom environment and in their grading of student work. Students must feel that there is an internal consistency between objectives, content, tests, and assignments (Keller & Suzuki, 2004). Some people are more equity-sensitive than others, and are thus more affected by discrepancies in equity, as indicated in the diagram below:

**2.4 Social Anxiety in the Classroom**
If the instructor does not create a supportive and respectful learning climate, learners will likely experience negative feelings that will affect their motivation and thus their academic performance. Anxiety causes students to refocus their frontal lobes to fight-or-flight mode, rather than focus on learning and retaining information (Barkley, 2010). The following table adapted from Turula (2002) illustrates some key differences between anxious learners and calm learners:



As indicated by the table above, learners who feel calm in their classroom environment will have an entirely different approach to learning. The approach of calm learners is based on instrinsic motivation and will lead to higher academic performance. It is up to the instructor to remove or reduce anxiety-inducing factors in the classroom so that all learners have the potential to be calm and therefore maximize their learning experience.

**2.5 Inclusion**
//"Inclusion is the awareness of adults that they are part of a learning environment in which they and their instructor are respected by and connected to one another."// - Raymond Wlodkowski Inclusion is a prerequisite for social interactions and effective communication (Cao, 2004). In an inclusive environment, learners feel safe, capable, and accepted. Inclusion also refers to a sense of belonging for each individual and an awareness that one is cared for and cares for others (Wlodkowski, 2008). With a sense of inclusion, adult learners are not afraid to engage in dialogue, share personal experiences, and take risks. Sharing and listening to personal experiences are important in the learning process because they activate the part of the brain that functions in long-term memory (Wlodkowski, 2008). Feelings of safety and trust cause learners to feel more relaxed and connected to each other, thus meeting their social needs and allowing them to focus their motivation towards learning. Therefore, for intrinsic motivation to develop, it's essential that learners are a part of an inclusive learning environment where they feel comfortable enough to voice their thoughts and opinions.

The following video provides a thorough introduction to the concept of inclusion in the classroom:

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**References**
Adams, J.S. (1963). Toward an understanding of inequity. //Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67//(5), 422-436.

Alderfer, C.P. (1969). An empirical test of a new theory of human needs. //Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 4//(2), 142-175.

Artz, Pat. (2010, April 13). Beyond the cognitive domain: integrating social and affective domains [Video file]. Retrieved from []

Barkley, E.F. (2010). //Student engagement techniques: a handbook for college faculty//. San Francisco, California: Jossey-Bass.

Brophy, J. (2004). //Motivating students to learn//, 2nd ed. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Cao, K.X. (2004). //Three levels of motivation in instruction: building interpersonal relations with learners//. Retrieved October 17, 2011, from []

Ginsberg, M B. & Wlodkowski, R.J. (2009). //Diversity and motivation: culturally responsive teaching in// college, 2nd ed. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Hovey, K. (2008). //Teaching within the three domains of learning//. Retrieved November 21, 2011, from []

Keller, J.M. & Suzuki, K. (2004). Learner motivation and E-learning design: a multinationally validated process. //Journal of Educational Media, 29//(3), 229-239.

McClelland, D.C. (1975). //Power: the inner experience//. Oxford, England: Irvington.

Meyer, D.K., & Turner, J.C. (2006). Re-conceptualizing emotion and motivation to learn in classroom contexts. //Educational Psychology Review,// (18), 377-390.

Norman, R. (2011, March 5). Inclusion a strategy for adult education [Video file]. Retrieved from []

Ratey, J.J. (2002). //A user's guide to the brain: perception, attention, and the four theaters of the brain//. New York, NY: Pantheon Books.

Turula, A. (2002). //Language anxiety and classroom dynamics: a study of adult learners.// Retrieved from []

Wlodkowski, R.J. (2008). //Enhancing adult motivation to learn: a comprehensive guide for teaching all adults.// San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.